Revocation of cryptographic digital certificates

ABSTRACT

In the setup phase, the certification authority (CA  120 ) generates validation proof data structures for greater time than the maximum validity period of any digital certificate. Therefore, new certificates can be added to the existing data structures after the setup phase.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser.No. 11/218,093, filed Aug. 31, 2005, which claims priority of U.S.Provisional Application No. 60/606,213 filed on Aug. 31, 2004, both ofwhich are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to public key cryptography, and moreparticularly to digital certificate revocation.

Digital certificates 104 (FIG. 1) are used in public key infrastructures(PKI) to facilitate secure use and management of public keys in anetworked computer environment. Users U1, U2, . . . utilize theircomputer systems 110.1, 110.2, . . . to generate respective key pairs(PK, SK) where PK is the public key and SK is the secret key. FIG. 1shows a key pair (PK_(U1), SK_(U1)) for user U1. The users registertheir public keys PK, over a network, with a certification authority(CA) 120. Alternatively, the key pairs can be generated by CA 120 andsent to the users. CA 120 is a secure, trusted computer system. For eachpublic key PK, CA 120 generates a digital certificate 104. Certificate104 contains the public key PK and the user's name and may also containthe user's email address or addresses, the certificate's serial numberSN (generated by the CA to simplify the certificate management), thecertificate issue date D1, the expiration date D2, an identification ofalgorithms to be used with the public and secret keys, an identificationof the CA 120, and possibly other data. The data mentioned above isshown at 104D. Certificate 104 also contains CA's signature 104-Sig_(CA)on the data 104D. The signature is generated using CA's secret keySK_(CA). CA 120 sends the certificate 104 to the user's (key owner's)computer system 110. Either the owner or the CA 120 can distribute thecertificate to other parties to inform them of the user's public key PK.Such parties can verify the CA's signature 104-Sig_(CA) with the CA'spublic key PK_(CA) to ascertain that the certificate's public key PKdoes indeed belong to the person whose name and email address areprovided in the certificate.

A certificate may have to be revoked prior to its expiration date D2.For example, the certificate owner U may change his affiliation orposition, or the owner's private key SK_(U) may be compromised. Otherparties must be prevented from using the owner's public key if thecertificate is revoked.

One approach to prevent the use of public keys of revoked certificatesis through a certificate revocation list (CRL). A CRL is a signed andtime-stamped list issued by CA 120 and specifying the revokedcertificates by their serial numbers SN. These CRLs must be distributedperiodically even if there are no new revoked certificates in order toprevent any type of replay attack. The CRL management may be unwieldywith respect to communication, search, and verification costs.Certificate revocation trees (CRTs) can be used instead of CRLs asdescribed in [15] (the bracketed numbers indicate references listed atthe end before the claims).

Instead of CRLs and CRTs, CA 120 could answer queries about specificcertificates. In FIG. 1, user U2 issues a query 150 with the serialnumber SN of certificate 104 of user U1. CA 120 responds with a validitystatus information 160 containing the serial number SN, a validitystatus field 160VS (“valid”, “revoked” or “unknown”), and a time stamp“Time”. The response is signed by CA (field 160-Sig_(CA)). This approachis used for Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP). See [23].Disadvantageously, the CA's digital signature 160-Sig_(CA) can be quitelong (over 1024 bits with RSA), especially since the CA must be verysecure. In addition, if CA 120 is centralized, the CA becomes avalidation bottleneck. If CA 120 is decentralized (replicated), thesecurity is weakened as the CA's signing key SK_(CA) is replicated.

FIG. 2 illustrates a “NOVOMODO” approach, which allows CA 120 to providean unsigned validity status through untrusted directories 210 atpre-specified time intervals (e.g. every day, or every hour, etc.).Directories 210 are computer systems that do not store secretinformation. The system works as follows.

Let f be a predefined public length-preserving functionf: {0,1}^(n)→{0,1}^(n)where {0, 1}^(n) is the set of all binary strings of a length n. Letf^(i) denote the f-fold composition; that is, f^(i)(x)=x for i=0, andf^(i)(x)=f(f^(i-1)(x)) for i>0. Let f be one-way, i.e. given f(x) wherex is randomly chosen, it is hard (infeasible) to find a pre-image z suchthat f(z)=f(x), except with negligible probability. “Infeasible” meansthat given a security parameter k (e.g. k=n), the pre-image z cannot becomputed in a time equal to a predefined polynomial in k except withnegligible probability. Let us assume moreover that f is one-way on itsiterates, i.e. for any i, given y=f^(i)(x), it is infeasible to find zsuch that f(z)=y.

We can assume, without loss of generality, that CA is required toprovide a fresh validity status every day, and the certificates arevalid for one year, i.e. 365 days (D2−D1=365 days). To create acertificate 104 (FIG. 2), CA 120 picks a random “seed” number x andgenerates a “hash chain” c₀, c₁, . . . c₃₆₅ wherein:c ₃₆₅ =f(x), c ₃₆₄ =f(f(x)), . . . c ₁ =f ³⁶⁵(x), c ₀ =f ³⁶⁶(x).   (1)We will sometimes denote x as x(SN) for a certificate with a serialnumber SN, and similarly c_(i)=c_(i)(SN) where i=0, 1, . . . The valuec₀ is called a “validation target”. CA 120 inserts c₀ into thecertificate 104 together with data 104D (FIG. 1). CA 120 also generatesa random revocation seed number N₀, computes the “revocation target”N₁=f(N₀), and inserts N₁ into certificate 104. CA 120 keeps all c_(i)secret for i>0. The values x and N₀ are also secret. Clearly, all c_(i)can all be computed from x, and the validation target c₀ can be computedfrom any c_(i). CA 120 stores in its private storage the values x and N₀for each certificate 104, and possibly (but not necessarily) caches thec_(i) values.

Every day i (i=1, 2, . . . 365), for each certificate 104, CAdistributes to directories 210 a validity proof data structure whichincludes, in addition to a validity status indication (not shown in FIG.2, can be “valid” or “revoked”):

-   1. the certificate's “i-token” c_(i) if the certificate is valid on    day i;-   2. the revocation seed N₀ if the certificate has been revoked.    This information is distributed unsigned. Each directory 210    provides this information, unsigned, to a requester system 110 in    response to a validity status request 150 (FIG. 1). To verify, the    requester (verifier) 110 performs the following operations:-   1. If the validity status is “valid”, the verifier 110 checks that    f^(i)(c_(i))=c₀.-   2. If the validity status is “revoked”, the verifier 110 checks that    f(N₀)=N₁.    Despite the validity information being unsigned, the scheme is    secure because given c_(i), it is infeasible to compute the    subsequent tokens c_(i+1), c_(i+2), . . .

To reduce the communication between CA 120 and directories 210, a hashchain (1) can be generated for a set of certificates 104, and a singlei-token c_(i) can be distributed for the set if the set is “unrevoked”(i.e. all the certificates are unrevoked in the set). FIG. 3 illustratescertificate sets F₁ through F₄. F₁ is the set of all the certificates104; F₂⊂F₃⊂F₁ and F₄⊂F₁. In addition to the seed numbers x, N₀ for eachcertificate 104, CA 120 generates random seed numbers x(F_(i)),N₀(F_(i)) for each set F_(i) and constructs a hash chain (1) from eachnumber x(F_(i)), with a validation target c₀(F_(i))=f³⁶⁶(x(F_(i))). Eachcertificate 104 is augmented with the targets c₀(F_(i)) for each setF_(i) containing the certificate.

Every day i, if all the certificates are valid, CA 120 distributes todirectories 210 only the i-token c_(i)(F₁). If only the set F₃ hasinvalid certificates, CA 120 distributes the i-tokens for the set F₄ andfor all the valid certificates in the set F₂. If only the set F₂-F₃ hasinvalid certificates, CA 120 distributes the i-tokens for the sets F₃and F₄ and for all the valid certificates in F₂-F₃, and so on.

In response to a validity status request for a certificate 104, adirectory 120 sends to the requester (the verifier):

-   1. an i-token c_(i) for the certificate or for a set F_(i)    containing the certificate if the certificate is valid;-   2. the certificate's revocation number N₀ if the certificate has    been revoked.

If the response indicates that the certificate is valid, the verifierchecks that f^(i)(c_(i)) is equal to one of the certificate's validationtargets. If the response indicates that the certificate is revoked, theverifier checks that f(N₀)=N₁ for the certificate.

Clearly, for each set R of revoked certificates (FIG. 4), it isdesirable to find a minimum set of sets F_(i) covering the validcertificates R′. By definition herein, the sets {F_(i)} “cover” R′ ifthe union U F_(i)=R′. We will say that {F_(i)} is the “complement cover”of R. The complement cover of R will be denoted as CC_(R).

Also, it is desirable to find a system of sets {F} containing a smallcomplement cover for any set R or at least for many possible sets R. If{F} contains a cover for each set R of the certificates, we will call{F} a complement cover for the set of all the certificates, and willdenote this complement cover CC(U) or just CC.

For uniformity, we will assume that each certificate 104 corresponds toa singleton set consisting of that certificate. The hash chain for thesingleton set is the same as for the certificate.

Clearly, if {F} contains the singleton set for each certificate, then{F} is a complement cover for the set of all the certificates.

Complement covers can be constructed using trees. FIG. 5 illustrates abinary tree 510 for eight certificates, numbered 1 through 8. Each noderepresents a set F_(i). Each leaf node (labeled 1, 2, . . . ) representsa singleton set for a respective certificate 1, 2, . . . Each higherlevel node represents the union of its children. E.g., node 1-4represents the set of certificates 1 through 4. The root represents allthe certificates. (We will use the numeral 510 to represent both thetree and the complement cover.)

If a certificate is revoked, then the corresponding leaf is revoked,i.e. represents a set that cannot be used for the i-token distribution.Also, each node in the path from the leaf to the root is revoked. In theexample of FIG. 6, the certificates 3 and 8 are revoked (as indicated by“x” marks). The sets 3-4, 1-4, 1-8, 7-8, 5-8 are therefore revoked. Theminimal complement cover CC_(R) of the revoked certificates consists ofnodes 1-2, 4, 5-6, 7. Generally, the minimal complement cover CC_(R)consists of all the nodes that are children of the revoked nodes.Computer tree traversal algorithms are known that can be implemented onCA 120 to mark revoked nodes when a certificate is revoked, and to findall the immediate unrevoked children of the revoked nodes. Each day CA120 distributes the i-tokens for the immediate children and the N₀tokens for the revoked leafs.

SUMMARY

This section summarizes some features of the invention. Other featuresare described in the subsequent sections. The invention is defined bythe appended claims which are incorporated into this section byreference.

One aspect of the present invention is directed to reducing thecertificate size. A certificate 104 in FIG. 3 may include multipletargets c₀. In some embodiments, a method is used to map such targetsinto a single “super-target”. The certificate includes the super-targetbut not the multiple targets.

Another aspect of the invention is directed to redacting the certificateby deleting unnecessary targets. In FIG. 3, each certificate 104includes multiple targets co plus a revocation target N₁. The verifierneeds just one of these targets for the validity or invalidity proof.The verifier may get the certificate and the proof from another party.It is desirable for the other party to redact the certificate bydeleting the unnecessary targets, but the other party may be unable togenerate the CA's signature 104-Sig_(CA) on the redacted certificate. Insome embodiments of the present invention, the CA uses a redactablesignature to enable other parties to delete the unnecessary targetswithout the CA's signing key (secret key SK_(CA)). The other parties arestill able to prove the CA's signature to the verifier.

Another aspect of the invention is directed to efficient distribution ofcertificate validity proofs. In some embodiments, the validity proofs(e.g. i-tokens) are distributed to the certificate owners. If a system110 issues a request 150 for a validity proof, the validity proof isprovided by the owner rather than the CA or a directory. A validityproof (e.g. an i-token) for a set F comprising multiple certificates canbe distributed to the certificates' owners via a multicast transmissionif the corresponding computer systems 110 form a multicasting group. Insome embodiments the sets F and the multicasting groups are matched tofacilitate the multicast transmissions. E.g., a multicasting group canbe created for a set F, or a set F can be created by the CA in the setupphase for a multicasting group. Also, a complement cover CC_(R) can bechosen to maximize the number of sets F for which the multicastinggroups exist.

Another aspect of the invention is directed to efficient caching ofvalidity proofs. In some embodiments, if a system 110 (e.g. 110.1) getsa validity proof for a certificate, the system 110.1 may cache thevalidity proof. Another system 110.2 may get the validity proof from thesystem 110.1 rather than the CA or a directory. In some embodiments, thecertificate sets F are assigned caching priorities which are taken intoaccount by the system 110.1 when making a decision as to whether or notto cache a validity proof for a set F. The caching priorities may bebased on the number of certificates in the set F, and/or the sum of theremaining unexpired validity periods for the certificates in F, and/orother factors.

Another aspect of the invention is directed to generation of certificatevalidation data structures (such as the hash chain seeds x) by the CA.For a hash chain (1), for example, the data structures are generated fora predefined number of periods of time (e.g. 365 days), with eachi-token corresponding to the period i. The number of periods of time isdefined by the certificate's maximum validity period as defined by thecertificate's issue and expiration dates D1 and D2. The number ofperiods of time is incorporated into the target c₀. This complicates theaddition of new certificates, especially if a complement cover is usedsince complement covers interrelate the validation proofs for multiplecertificates. In some embodiments, in the setup phase, the CA generatesthe data structures for more periods of time than required by thecertificates' maximum validity periods. For example, the CA can generatethe data structures for some predefined number M of certificates forsome number Td of periods of time where Td is greater than the maximumvalidity period. The actual number of the certificates created in thesetup phase may be less than M. The CA can add new certificates afterthe setup phase as long as the new certificates will expire before or inthe last time period Td. A validity proof may include the i-tokenc_(i)(F) and, in addition, the number j of times needed to apply thefunction f to the i-token to obtain the target c₀(F). The verifierchecks that f^(j)(c_(i)(F))=c₀(F). The hash chains can be replaced withother structures, e.g. hash trees as described below.

Another aspect of the invention is directed to providing a distributedcertificate authority. The CA distributes validation data (e.g.i-tokens) to “Sub-CA” computer systems which in turn generate validationproofs and provide them to verifiers. The CA distributes secret data tothe Sub-CAs in advance. For example, the CA can distribute all thei-tokens for all the certificates in the setup phase. Any one or more ofa number of techniques are used to make the validation secure even if aSub-CA is compromised.

One technique involves generating different data for the samecertificate for different Sub-CAs. Thus, a separate validation seed xand a separate revocation seed N₀ can be generated for each certificatefor each Sub-CA. The certificate may include all the respectivevalidation and revocation targets. Alternatively, the validation targetsmay be mapped into a single “super-target” by a public function, and thecertificate may have only the validation “super-target”. The revocationtargets can be handled in the same way. Alternatively, all thevalidation and revocation targets can be mapped into a singlesuper-target.

Further, in each period i, a Sub-CA validity proof is made available bythe CA for each Sub-CA for the period i. If a Sub-CA is compromised, theCA withholds the Sub-CA's validity proof. Therefore, the verifiers willknow that the Sub-CA is invalid, and will not use the Sub-CA'scertificate validity proofs. If the remaining Sub-CAs are notcompromised, their data remain secret because each Sub-CA has its owncertificate validation data as described above.

Further, a mechanism is provided for recovering control of a compromisedSub-CA. The mechanism involves encryption of the certificate validationdata before transmitting the data to the Sub-CAs. For each period i, ora number of consecutive periods i (such consecutive periods i will becalled a “partition”), separate encryption/decryption keys are used (theencryption can be symmetric or asymmetric). Further, differentdecryption keys are used for different Sub-CAs. For each partition, thedecryption keys are provided to the Sub-CAs at or shortly before thestart of the partition. If a Sub-CA is compromised in any partition, theadversary may get hold of the decrypted data (e.g. i-tokens) for thecurrent partition, but the data for the future partitions are encryptedand thus secure. If the CA gets control of the Sub-CA again, the CA mayreactivate the Sub-CA at or after the end of the last partition forwhich the Sub-CA received its decryption key. The CA does not providethe decryption keys to compromised Sub-CAs.

The invention is not limited to the features and advantages describedabove. Other features are described below. The invention is defined bythe appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1, 2 are block diagrams illustrating prior art certificaterevocation schemes.

FIGS. 3, 4 illustrate sets of certificates for prior art certificaterevocation schemes.

FIGS. 5, 6 illustrate computer data structures for prior art certificaterevocation schemes.

FIGS. 7A, 7B illustrate computer data structures for certificaterevocation schemes according to some embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 8 is a block diagram illustrating networked computer systems anddata structures for certificate revocation schemes according to someembodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 9, 10 are flowcharts for certificate revocation schemes accordingto some embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 11-14 illustrate computer data structures for certificaterevocation schemes according to some embodiments of the presentinvention.

FIG. 15 is a block diagram illustrating networked computer systems anddata structures for certificate revocation schemes according to someembodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 16, 17 are flowcharts for certificate revocation schemes accordingto some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 18 is a block diagram illustrating networked computer systems anddata structures for certificate revocation schemes according to someembodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 19 illustrates computer data structures for certificate revocationschemes according to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 20 is a block diagram illustrating networked computer systems anddata structures for certificate revocation schemes according to someembodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 21A is a block diagram illustrating of computer system with dataaccording to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 21B is a flowchart for certificate revocation schemes according tosome embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 22 is a timing diagram for certificate revocation schemes accordingto some embodiments of the present invention.

FIGS. 23A, 23B are flowcharts for certificate revocation schemesaccording to some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 24 is a timing diagram for certificate revocation schemes accordingto some embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 25 is a flowchart for certificate revocation schemes according tosome embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 26 is a block diagram illustrating networked computer systems anddata structures for certificate revocation schemes according to someembodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 27 is a flowchart for certificate revocation schemes according tosome embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 28 is a block diagram illustrating networked computer systems anddata structures for certificate revocation schemes according to someembodiments of the present invention.

DESCRIPTION OF SOME EMBODIMENTS

The embodiments described in this section illustrate but do not limitthe invention. The invention is defined by the appended claims.

We will assume that the CA 120, the directories 210, the systems 110 arecomputer systems communicating with each other over a network ornetworks. Each of these systems may itself be a computer system havingcomponents communicating over networks. Each computer system includesone or more computer processors executing computer instructions andmanipulating computer data as described above and below. The term “data”includes “computer data” and covers both computer instructions andcomputer data manipulated by the instructions. The instructions and datacan be stored on a data carrier such as a computer storage, i.e. acomputer readable medium (e.g. a magnetic or optical disk, asemiconductor memory, and other types of media, known or to beinvented). The data carrier may include an electromagnetic carrier wavetransmitted through space, via a cable, or by some other means. A“cache” can be any computer storage. The instructions and data areoperable to cause the computer to execute appropriate algorithms asdescribed above.

We will use the following notation. We let DS=(KG, Sign, Vf) denote adigital signature scheme. Here KG denotes a key generation algorithm,Sign(Sk, M) denotes the signing algorithm which outputs a signature σ ona message M under a signing key Sk. Vf(Pk, M, σ) denotes theverification algorithm which evaluates to a binary value indicatingwhether or not the signature a on the message M is correct with respectto a public key Pk. We let {0,1}* denote the set of all bit strings. |s|denotes the length of a bit string s. We let H denote a cryptographiccompression function that takes as input a b-bit payload and a v-bitinitialization vector IV and produces a v-bit output. In someembodiments, b≧2v. We will assume that the cryptographic compressionfunctions mentioned below can be collision resistant, i.e. it isdifficult to find two distinct inputs m₁≠m₂ such that H(IV, m₁)=H(IV,m₂). We will assume that IV is fixed and publicly known, and we willsometimes omit it for notational simplicity. Practical examples of suchcryptographic compression functions are SHA-1 [26] (output size is 20bytes) and MD5 [28] (output size 16 bytes), both having a 64-bytepayload. For simplicity, we will use the term “hash function” instead ofcompression function. The term “hash function” can also denote a mappingform {0,1}* into {0,1}^(v) for some fixed v. Hash functions aretypically one way and collision resistant, but the invention is notlimited to such functions.

Hash Tree over Targets.

In order to reduce the size of a certificate 104 of FIG. 3, somealgorithm A can be defined allowing the verifier to map each validationtarget to a common “super-target” value r:r←A(c₀) for all targets c₀ for this certificate.   (2)Then the targets c₀ can be deleted from the certificate and replacedwith the value r.

In some embodiments, the algorithm A is defined using a hash tree datastructure. A hash tree is a tree in which each node (“vertex”) v isassigned a value Value(v). A hash tree is created for each certificate104. FIG. 7A shows an example for the certificate revocation scheme ofFIGS. 5-6 for the certificate no. 5. The tree nodes are numbered fromtop to bottom, left to right, breadth first. Thus, the root is labeled“v0”, its children are “v1” and “v2”, and so on. The labeling scheme isfor illustration and is not limiting. The certificate no. 5 belongs toeach of four sets F, namely, the sets {5}, {5, 6}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}. Let us denote the respective targets c₀(5), c₀(5-6),c₀(5-8), c₀(1-8). These targets' values are assigned to the tree leafsv3, v4, v5, v6, in any order:Value(v3)=c₀(5), Value(v4)=c₀(5-6), and so on.The values of the higher level nodes are computed using some publicalgorithm, for example:Value(v)=H(Value(left child of v) o Value(right child of v))  (3)where v is any higher level node, H is a public hash function, and “o”denotes string concatenation. The certificate 104 (FIG. 7B) contains theroot value Value(v0) but does not contain the targets c₀. In someembodiments, each target c₀ is the same size as Value(v0), e.g. 20bytes. The certificate size is therefore reduced.

FIG. 8 illustrates some data structures in CA 120 and directories 210.At the set up stage (shown in FIG. 9), CA 120 generates the revocationseed N₀ for each certificate 104 (step 910 in FIG. 9). CA 120 alsogenerates the complement cover CC (step 914). We will assume that thecomplement cover is generated as in FIG. 5, but this is not necessary.The complement cover could be generated using any other method, known orto be invented. CA 120 also generates the validation seed x(F) for eachset F in the complement cover 510 (step 918). These steps can beperformed as in prior art (FIGS. 5-6). In addition, CA 120 generates ahash tree 710 for each certificate 104 (step 922). At step 930, CA 120distributes to each directory 210 the information which will allow thedirectory to determine, for each certificate (each serial number SN),(i) all the sets F containing the certificate (as shown at 804 in FIG.8), and (ii) the corresponding hash tree 710.

At the start of each period pi (we will use the expressions “period pi”and “period i” interchangeably), or shortly before the period pi, CA 120determines a minimal complement cover CC_(R) of the revoked certificatesR (as in FIGS. 4-6 for example). CA 120 distributes to directories 210 apossibly unsigned data structure 810 (FIG. 8) for each set F in CC_(R),and a possibly unsigned data structure 820 for each invalid certificate104. These structures can be as in prior art FIGS. 5-6. Structure 810contains an identification of the set F and the token c_(i)(F). (We willrefer to c_(i)(F) as “period data” for the period c_(i); “period data”are data from which a target is computable by the verifier). Structure810 may also contain other information, such as an identification of theperiod pi and/or of function f. Structure 820 contains the certificate'sserial number SN, the value N₀ for the certificate, and an indicationthat the certificate has been revoked.

In response to a request from a verifier system 110, a directory 210responds with a possibly unsigned data structure 830 if the certificateis valid, and a possibly unsigned data structure 840 if the certificateis invalid. Even before issuing the request, the verifier can check theCA's signature on the certificate (step 1004 in FIG. 10) and theexpiration date D2 to make sure the certificate has not expired.Receiving a directory response 830 or 840 is shown at 1006. Structure830 specifies the validity status as “valid” and includes, in a field830V, the i-token c_(i)(F) and sufficient information to compute theroot value r=Value(v0) of the certificate's hash tree 710. Note equation(2) above. If the response is structure 830 (as determined at step1010), i.e. the certificate is claimed to be valid, the verifiercomputes the target c₀(F) from c_(i)(F) using the hash chain equations(1) at step 1020. At step 1030, the verifier computes the root valueValue(v0) from the additional information in field 830V. In someembodiments (not shown in FIGS. 8, 10), this information includes theleaf values (such as c0(5), c0(5-6), c0(5-8), c0(1-8) in FIG. 7A). Theverifier uses equation (3) to compute the root value. Actually, theverifier does not need all the leaf values. For example, suppose thecomplement cover is as in FIGS. 5, 7A, and F={5-6}. In order to computeValue(v0) from c₀(5-6), the verifier only needs the values of nodes v3and v2. The nodes v3 and v2 will be called co-nodes of v4 and denotedcollectively as CoNodes(v4). More generally, the co-nodes are all thenodes needed to compute the root value. CoNodes(v) is defined as the setof all siblings of the nodes on the path from node v to the root.CoNodes(v) can be defined for binary and non-binary trees as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{{{CoNodes}(v)} = \begin{matrix}{Ø\left( {{empty}\mspace{14mu}{set}} \right)} & {{{if}\mspace{14mu} v\mspace{14mu}{is}\mspace{14mu}{the}\mspace{14mu}{root}};} \\{{{Sib}(v)}U\mspace{11mu}{{CoNodes}\left( {{Parent}(v)} \right)}} & {{otherwise}.}\end{matrix}} & (4)\end{matrix}$Here Sib(v) is the (possibly empty) set of all siblings of v, andParent(v) is the parent node of v.

In some embodiments, the structure 830 includes the co-nodes' valuesshown as Value(CoNodes(Leaf(F, SN))) in FIG. 8. Here Leaf(F, SN) is theleaf node corresponding to the set F in tree 710 of the certificate withthe serial number SN. The expression Value(CoNodes(Leaf(F, SN))) denotesall the co-node information needed to compute the root value Value(v0)for the tree 710. The co-node information may include not only theco-node values but also the order in which the co-node values must beconcatenated for equation (3). For example, for FIG. 7A,Value(CoNodes(v4)) can be represented as a list:(L, v3); (R, v2)  (5)Here L and R are values of a one-bit flag indicating if the co-node mustbe on the left or the right in the concatenation. For example, in theexpressionValue(v1)=H(Value(v3) o Value(v4)),Value(v3) is to the left of Value(v4), therefore the flag value for v3is L.

Of note, the verifier does not need to know the geometry of tree 510 or710 since the list (5) is sufficient to compute the root valueValue(v0). The root value can be computed as follow:

LISTING 1: Root Value Computation 1. Root value ← starting value (i.e.Value(Leaf(F, SN)=c₀(F)). 2. Traverse the list Value(CoNodes(Leaf(F,SN))) (such as the list (5)) from left to right. For each co-node,    if the L or R flag value is L, then      Root value ←H(Value(co-node) o Root value)     otherwise      Root value ← H(temp oValue(co-node)) END OF LISTING 1.

The verifier computes the root value at step 1030 (FIG. 10). The rootvalue is shown as Value(v0(F, SN)) in FIG. 10. The verifier compares thecomputed root value with the certificate's Value(v0). If the two valuesare equal, the certificate is assumed valid. Otherwise, the validityproof fails (the certificate is assumed invalid or the verifier mayrequest another proof).

The structure 840 for an invalid certificate can be as in prior art, andcan have the same information as structure 820. The verifier checks atstep 1040 that f(N₀)=N₁, as in prior art.

The invention is not limited to the hash tree 710 of the form of FIG.7A. For example, the leaf node values c₀ can be replaced with H(c₀).This is similar to using a tree 710 of FIG. 11. Here an extra layer ofnodes v7-v10 is added at the bottom to serve as leafs. Each leaf is asingle child, with a value c₀(F) for a respective set F. Hence thevalues of nodes v3-v7 are H(c₀) where c₀ for the corresponding c₀. Ifthe function H is defined only on the set {0,1}^(2k) where k is thelength of each target c₀, then the c₀ values can be padded to the length2k in any suitable manner to define H(c₀). Other tree structures canalso be used. The number of sets F containing each given certificatedoes not have to be a power of 2. For example, some leaf nodes can bedummy nodes, assigned some random or pseudo-random values. Also,non-binary trees or non-balanced trees can be used. A value c₀ can beassigned to a non-leaf node. Further, the value of a parent node neednot be computed as in equation (3). For example, the children values canbe concatenated with some additional values to compute the parent node'svalue, or the children values can be added or subjected to some otherprocessing. Different hash functions H can be used for different parentsin the same tree. For a non-binary tree, the parent's value can be ahash function of a concatenation of all of the children values, or someother function of all or fewer than all of the children values. Otheralgorithms A in equation (2), which are not represented by means oftrees, can also be suitable.

The term “tree” denotes any computer data structure together with amethod for determining the parent from a child node or the children fromthe parent. The data structure may include pointers from the childrennodes to the parent and/or from the parent to the children.Alternatively, the nodes may be arranged as an array or some otherstructure, with no pointers, but with a method, implemented by computerinstructions, which determines the parent from a child node or thechildren from the parent.

In some embodiments, the hash chains (1) are replaced with hash trees1210 (FIGS. 12-14). See e.g. reference [24] and PCT publication WO2005/029445 published on 31 Mar. 2005, both incorporated herein byreference. In FIG. 12, leafs v15-v22 are each associated with a timeperiod pi. There are eight consecutive periods p1-p8 in this example.For instance, a certificate can be valid for eight days, and each periodp1 through p8 can be one day. Let gv(i) denote the node corresponding tothe period pi. Thus, gv(1)=v15, gv(2)=v16, etc. These nodes will becalled “grey” nodes herein. Each grey node gv(i) is a single child of arespective parent v7-v14. Above the leaf level v5-v22, the tree 1210 isa balanced binary tree.

Each leaf gv(i) is assigned a random or pseudo-random value. Theremaining nodes' values are defined by the child nodes' values, usingthe equation (3) for example, i.e. each parent node's value is a hashfunction of a concatenation of the children values; at the bottom level,the value of each node v7-v14 is a hash function of the correspondingchild. The root value Value(v0) will be called a target, and denoted byc₀. A separate tree 1210 is constructed by CA 120 for each set F of thecomplement cover CC (e.g. for CC 510), with different random leaf valuesgenerated separately for each tree 1210. FIG. 15 shows the trees 1210replacing the hash chain information in CA 120.

For each certificate 104, a hash tree 710 (as in FIG. 7A) is constructedby the CA with the leaf values being the targets c₀(F) of trees 1210corresponding to all the sets F containing the certificate. Eachcertificate 104 has a form as in FIG. 7B. The hash functions H for trees1210 can be the same or different for the different trees 1210 and canbe the same or different from the hash functions H of trees 710. Thehash functions H are all public.

The CA set up procedure (FIG. 16) is similar to FIG. 9, except that atstep 918 the CA generates the tree 1210 for each leaf.

In each period pi, CA 120 determines a minimal complement cover CC_(R)of the revoked certificates R using the same procedure as describedabove for FIG. 8. CA 120 distributes to directories 210 a possiblyunsigned structure 810 (FIG. 15) for each set F in CC_(R), and apossibly unsigned structure 820 for each invalid certificate 104.Structure 810 contains an identification of the set F and also contains,in field 830V, period data consisting of Value(gv(i,F)) andValue(CoNodes(gv(i,F))), where gv(i,F) is the node gv(i) of the tree1210 corresponding to the set F. Structure 810 may also contain otherinformation, such as an identification of period pi or function(s) Hused to construct the tree 1210 or 710. Structure 820 contains thecertificate's serial number SN, the value N₀ for the certificate, and anindication that the certificate has been revoked.

In response to a request from a verifier system 110, a directory 210responds with a possibly unsigned data structure 830 if the certificateis valid, and a possibly unsigned structure 840 if the certificate isinvalid. Structure 830 contains the certificate' serial number SN, anindication that the certificate is valid, and the values Value(gv(i,F)),Value(CoNodes(gv(i,F))), Value(CoNodes(Leaf(F,SN))). Here F is anelement of CC_(R) containing the SN certificate; Leaf(F,SN) is the leafnode corresponding to the set F of the certificate's tree 710. Theverification procedure is shown in FIG. 17. Steps 1004, 1006, 1010, 1040are as in FIG. 10. At step 1020, the verifier computes c₀(F) fromValue(gv(i,F)) and Value(CoNodes(gv(i,F))) that are given in structure830. The computation can be as in Listing 1 above. At step 1030, theverifier computes Value(v₀(F,SN)) from c₀(F) computed at step 1020 andfrom Value(CoNodes(Leaf(F,SN))) given in structure 830. This computationcan also be as in Listing 1. If the computed value equals thecertificate's Value(v0), the certificate is assumed valid. Otherwise,the certificate is assumed invalid or the verifier may seek anotherproof of the certificate status.

FIG. 13 shows a “dense hash tree” 1210 which can be used instead of thetree of FIG. 12. The tree of FIG. 13 is a balanced binary tree. Theperiods pi are associated with “grey” nodes gv(i). The non-grey nodeswill be called “white”. The grey and white nodes are determined asfollows. The root v0 is white. Its left child v1 is grey, and the rightchild v2 is white. In general, each left child is grey, and each rightchild is white. The grey nodes are traversed top-down, left-to-right,breadth first, and the consecutive gray nodes are assigned toconsecutive periods pi. Thus, gv(1)=v1, gv(2)=v7, gv(3)=v9, and so on.All the leafs are assigned some random or pseudo-random values, and theparents' values are computed from the children's values like for FIG. 12or for a tree 710. The operation of CA 120, directories 210 and theverifiers is as for FIG. 12.

FIG. 14 shows a “grounded dense hash tree” 1210 which can be usedinstead of the trees of FIGS. 12 and 13. The tree of FIG. 14 is similarto the tree of FIG. 13, but the tree of FIG. 14 has an additional bottomlayer of single children, shown as v7-v10. grey nodes gv(i) are the leftchildren and the single children, numbered top to bottom and left toright, breadth first. The operation of CA 120, directories 210 and theverifiers is as for FIG. 12.

Suppose that there are N=2^(k) certificates. Then the tree 510 has (1+k)levels, and each certificate belongs to (1+k) sets F. This is the numberof validation targets c₀(F). Hence, there are about log₂(1+k) levels inhash tree 710, with about the same number of co-nodes. Let us supposethat the certificate owner provides the certificate and the validityproof to a requester. Then the use of hash trees 710 provides animprovement by O(k/log₂k). This is significant for large k.

In some embodiments, the certificate's targets c₀ are sub-divided intogroups of targets, and a separate hash tree 710 is defined for eachgroup. The certificate contains the root value Value(v₀) of each suchhash tree. Other variations are also possible.

Redacting the Certificate

As illustrated in FIG. 18, the validity proofs (1810) for eachcertificate can be distributed to the respective certificate owners(110.1). The validity proofs can be distributed by the CA, directories210, or other parties. A third party (110.2) desiring to validate acertificate 104 can receive the validity proof 1810 from the certificateowner (110.1) rather than the CA. Sometimes, validity proof requests 150(FIG. 1) are eliminated. For example, when a certificate owner 110.1(i.e. a user of system 110.1) sends to party 110.2 a document (notshown) signed by the owner, the owner 110.1 can append the certificate104 to the document to enable the party 110.2 to verify the owner'ssignature on the document even if the party 110.2 has not requested theowner's certificate. The owner 110.1 can also send to the party 110.2 avalidity proof 1810 for the owner's certificate 104. See Gentry,“Certificate-Based Encryption and the Certificate Revocation Problem”,Proceedings of EUROCRYPT 2003, pages 272-293, incorporated herein byreference.

In FIG. 18, the certificate 104 includes multiple targets Tar-1, . . .Tar-n. Each target can be a hash chain target c₀(F) as in FIG. 3, or theroot value of a tree 1210. Hash trees 710 are not used. Alternatively, atree 710 can be used over some, but not all, of the validation targetsc₀, and a target Tar-i may be the root value of the tree 710. Thetargets Tar-i may also include a revocation target N₁ (FIGS. 3, 7B).Other certificate schemes, known or to be invented, can also be used forthis invention. A target is any value computable by a verifier 110.2 todetermine if the certificate is valid and/or invalid.

At the start of, or shortly before, each period pi, the validity proof1810 for the certificate 104 is provided (possibly pushed) to thecertificate owner's computer system 110.1. Validity proof 1810 may havethe same form as data 810 of FIG. 8 or 15. For the case of FIG. 15, theverifier would have to compute the root value of tree 1210 from theperiod data as in Listing 1 and compare the root value to a targetTar-i. Other validity verification schemes can also be used. We willassume that the verifier does not need all the targets Tar-i to verifythe certificate's validity. The verifier may need just one target Tar-ias in FIG. 18, or may need more than one but less than all of thetargets.

Certificate owner system 110.1 provides the validity proof 1810 to party(computer system) 110.2 together with the certificate 104. According tosome aspects of the present invention, the party 110.1 redacts thecertificate by deleting the unneeded targets to reduce the amount ofdata provided to party 110.2. The redacted certificate 104R includes asignature proof 104R-Sig_(CA) to allow the party 110.2 to verify theCA's signature on the certificate. Party 110.1 does not have the CA'ssecret key. CA 120 uses a redactable signature scheme to enable theparty 110.1 to provide the signature proof 104T-Sig_(CA). Suitableredactable signature schemes are described in [12], and other schemesmay be suitable, whether known or to be invented. One scheme isillustrated in FIG. 19. It is built on top of another signature schemeSig₀, which can be any signature scheme, redactable or not. To form aredactable signature on a message x, the message is broken up intoblocks x₀, x₁, . . . (eight blocks in FIG. 19). Each of these blocks canbe deleted to redact the message. If the message x is a certificate 104,one block can be standard data 104D, and each of the other blocks canconsist of one or more of the targets Tar-j. Alternatively, data 104Dmay correspond to a number of blocks, and so can each target. A binarytree 1910 is constructed having at least as many leafs as there areblocks in the message x. For convenience of reference, the tree's nodesare labeled with binary strings as follows. The root node is labeledwith the empty string E. The root's left and right children are labeledwith strings ‘0’ and ‘1’ respectively. In general, for a node labeledwith a string s, the left child is labeled s0 (appending 0) and theright child is labeled s1.

Suppose each block of the message x has k bits (or less). Let G:{0,1}^(k)→{0,1}^(2k) be a pseudo-random generator. We assign a k-bitnumber k_(s) to each node s as follows:

Listing 2

-   1. Pick k_(E) uniformly randomly from {0,1}^(k).-   2. Recursively, for each node s, define k_(s0) as the first k bits    of G(k_(s)), and k_(s1) as the remaining k bits.    End Listing 2.

Each leaf node s as assigned to a corresponding block x_(s)of themessage x (where “s” is interpreted both as a string and as a binarynumber). We define a hash tree structure on tree 1910, using somepredefined hash function H, with a value v_(s) assigned to each node sas follows. For the leaf nodes,v_(s)=H(0, k_(s), x_(s))  (6)(the entities 0, k_(s), x_(s) are concatenated). If there are more leafnodes than blocks x_(s), the corresponding v_(s) values can be generatedrandomly or pre-assigned (e.g. set to 0). For every non-leaf node s,v_(s)=H(1, v_(s0), v_(s1)).   (7)

The redactable signature Sig(x) on the message x is defined asSig(x)=<k_(E), Sig₀(v_(E))>  (8)

If the message x is redacted by a deletion of some block x_(L) for somestring L, the signature proof (which will also be denoted as Sig(x)) is:Sig(x)=<k_Value(CoNodes(L)), v_(L), Sig₀(v_(E))>  (9)where k_Value(CoNodes(L)) is the set of the k_(s) values for the nodes sin CoNodes(L). Clearly, k_Value(CoNodes(L)) is sufficient for theverifier to compute k_(s) for the leafs other than L, and hence tocompute v_(s) for these leafs. The value v_(L) is part of signatureproof (9), so the verifier can compute v_(E) from equation (7) andverify the base signature Sig₀(v_(E)).

Multiple targets can be deleted sequentially. Alternatively, thefollowing techniques can sometimes be used. Suppose we delete all thetargets except Tar-1 (i.e. all the message blocks for the leafs 010through 111 in FIG. 19). Then the v_(s) values for the leafs 100 through111 can be replaced with v₁, and for the leafs 010 and 011 with v₀₁.Generally, if a sub-tree's leafs are all “deleted” (i.e. correspond todeleted blocks), the v_(s) value for the sub-tree's root is insertedinto the signature proof instead of the v_(s) values for the leafs. Inour example (delete blocks x₀₁₀ through x₁₁₁), the signature proof canbe:Sig(x)=<k₀₀, v₀₁, v₁, Sig₀(v_(E))>  (10)(The signature proof Sig(x) may also include the label s for each k_(s)and v_(s) value, and other data as needed to interpret the components ofthe signature proof). This signature proof has all the informationneeded for the verification. If all the targets except Tar-7 aredeleted, the signature proof can be:Sig(x)=<k₀₀₀, v₀₀₁, v₀₁, k₁₁₁, v₁₁₀, v₀₁, Sig₀(v_(E))>  (11)Here we delete six targets but add five k-bit values to the signatureproof compared to the signature proof (8) for the original message x.The signature proof (11) can be shortened however if we provide k_(E)instead of k₀₀₀ and k₁₁₁. In some prior applications, the value k_(E)was not provided to hide the k_(s) values for the deleted message blocksx_(s) in order to make it harder for the verifier to determine thecontents of the deleted blocks. In some embodiments, however, thecertificate owner 110.1 does not try to hide the deleted targets, thusallowing a shorter signature proof to be constructed. Moreover, k_(E)can be a public constant rather than randomly generated since thesignature security is provided by the base signature scheme Sig₀. Inthis case, the k_(E) value does not need to be provided as part of thesignature proof. Further, the function G does not have to be apseudorandom generator.

In some embodiments, the certificate owner 110.1 first checks if theredacted certificate 104R is smaller than the non-redacted certificate104. The certificate owner sends to party 110.2 the shortest of the twocertificates. In another embodiment, the certificate owner 110.1 sendsthe shortest among the certificate 104 and all the redacted certificatescontaining the target Tar-i (deleting fewer than all of the unneededtargets may provide a shorter certificate than deleting all of theunneeded targets).

Multicast Distribution of Validity Proofs

Pushing validity status information can be advantageous in ad hocnetworks. An ad hoc network is a self-configuring wireless network ofsystems 110 (FIG. 20) each of which also serves as a router. In eachperiod pi, a directory or directories 210 push the validity proofs 1810to the systems 110 of the owners of the respective certificates. Forlarge well-chosen complement cover families, the number of validityproofs 1810 needed to be distributed is relatively small and therefore,periodic validation status information can be distributed efficientlyover the network. Broadcasting and multicasting can be used forefficient distribution. In some embodiments, a multicasting group 2010of systems 110 is created for each set F in the complement cover CC(U)if the set F has more than one certificates or at least some minimumnumber of certificates. The certificate owners 110 with certificates 104in the set F subscribe to the corresponding multicasting group. Avalidity proof 1810 for the set F can be efficiently distributed via amulticast transmission to the group. If a set F contains all thecertificates, the validity proof 1810 can be broadcast. As used herein,the term “multicasting” includes broadcasting.

In some embodiments, CA 120 generates a complement cover CC(U) takinginto account possible multicasting groups 2010. For example, a separateset F can be created for each multicasting group 2010. The set F willconsist of certificates 104 owned by operators of stations 110 in themulticasting group 2010. Also, when CA 120 generates a complement coverCC_(R) of the revoked certificates, CA 120 may preferentially choose thesets F corresponding to multicasting groups 2010. In some embodiments,the sets F are assigned priorities, with a higher priorities assigned tosets F corresponding to multicasting groups 2010. The priorities mayalso depend on other factors. In some embodiments,Priority(F₁)≧Priority(F₂) if F₁ ⊃F₂  (12)CA 120 first selects the sets F of the highest priority when generatingthe complement cover CC_(R), then the sets F of the next highestpriority, and so on. In other embodiments, CA 120 maximizes the sum ofthe priorities of the sets F in CC_(R). Other schemes for taking themulticasting groups into account can also be used.

Suppose for example that the complement cover CC(U) includes the sets Fof FIGS. 5-6 and also includes a set F₀ consisting of certificates{1,5}. Suppose there is a multicasting group 2010 including, orconsisting of, computer systems 110 of the owners of certificates 1 and5. Suppose the set of revoked certificates is {3, 8} as in FIG. 6. Theminimal complement cover CC_(R) consists of sets {1-2}, {4}, {5-6}, {7}as described above. If none of these four sets corresponds to amulticasting group 2010, then directories 210 would have to perform 6unicast transmissions (one transmission for each valid certificate) topush the validity proofs 1810 to the certificate owners (assuming eachcertificate is owned by a different owner operating a separate system110). If the set F₀ has a higher priority, the CA may form a complementcover CC_(R) consisting of sets {1,5}, {2}, {4}, {6}, {7}. Thedirectories 210 will need to perform only five transmissions of proofs1810 to the certificate owners because the proof for the set {1,5} canbe pushed via a multicast transmission.

In some embodiments, a set F may correspond only approximately to amulticasting group 2010. The set F may contain some, but not all, of thecertificates associated with a group 2010. The set F may receive ahigher priority if F contains more than one certificates associated witha multicasting group of systems 110. In some embodiments, Priority(F) isproportional to the number of such certificates. (“Proportional to”means “increases with” and does not necessarily mean “directlyproportional”).

In some embodiments, CA 120 may or may not take the multicasting groupsinto account, but the network of stations 110 forms at least some ofmulticasting groups 2010 based on the sets F. For example, amulticasting group 2010 can be formed for each set F containing morethan one certificates. In another embodiment, each set F containing morethan one certificate is assigned a priority Prt(F) representing theexpected frequency, or the expected number of periods pi, in which Fwill be an element of CC_(R). Multicasting groups 2010 are created onlyfor the sets F of high priorities Prt. The priority Prt(F) may dependon, and be proportional to, a number of factors including, withoutlimitation:

-   1. The number of certificates in the set F.-   2. The sum Σ(D2−pi) of the remaining unexpired periods of the    certificates in the set F in the period pi, or ΣD2. If D2 is    infinite, some predefined high number can be assigned to the    corresponding certificate when computing this sum.

When a system 110 joins the network, the system 110 may form amulticasting group 2010 for one or more of such sets F, e.g. for atleast one set F containing a certificate 104 owned by the operator ofsystem 110. Alternatively, the multicasting groups can be formed inadvance, and the system 110 joining the network may subscribe to one ormore, and possibly all, of multicasting groups 2010 associated with setsF containing the certificate corresponding to the system 110.

The invention is not limited to ad hoc networks.

Caching Validity Proofs

In ad hoc networks and other networks in which at least some of systems110 serve as routers, when a verifier system 110 (e.g. 110.1) needs acertificate's validity status (possibly for a certificate not owned bythe operator of system 110.1), the verifier's request 150 (FIG. 1) maytravel over a number of other systems 110 on the way to a directory 210or CA 120. Therefore, in some embodiments, when a verifier system 110.1receives a validity proof 1810, the system 110.1 may cache the validityproof in its cache 2110 (FIG. 21A). When another verifier 110.2 issues arequest 150 for the same certificate, or for a certificate in the sameset F (if complement covers are used), and the request reaches thecaching system 110.1, the system 110.1 may send the cached response tothe system 110.2 without forwarding the response to a directory 210 orCA 120. Since caches 2110 have a limited size, the caching system 110.1may cache only selected validity proofs 1810 expected to satisfy manyrequests 150 issued in the current period pi. In some embodiments, thesystem 110.1 uses the “least recently used” caching policy, givingpriority to the validity proofs 1810 for the certificates for which avalidity proof was most recently provided by system 110.1 to othersystems 110. Other caching strategies, known or to be invented, can alsobe used. In some embodiments, the sets F are assigned caching prioritiesPrt1(F) representing the caching desirability of the respective proofs1810. In some embodiments, the caching priority Prt1(F) is proportionalto:

-   1. The number of certificates in the set F.-   2. The sum Σ(D2−pi) of the remaining unexpired periods of the    certificates in the set F in the period pi, or ΣD2. If D2 is    infinite, some predefined high number can be assigned to the    corresponding certificate when computing this sum.

When system 110.1 receives a proof 1810 (step 2120 in FIG. 21B), theverifier 110.1 processes the proof 1810 to verify the certificate'svalidity (the invention is not limited to any verification method). Inaddition, system 110.1 decides, at step 2130, if the proof 1810 shouldbe cached. The caching decision depends on the caching priority Prt1(F)of the set F corresponding to proof 1810, and may depend on otherfactors, such as the amount of free memory in cache 2110. In someembodiments, the caching decision is negative if the proof 1810 fails toprove the certificate's validity at step 2120. If the caching decisionis positive, the proof 1810 is cached in cache 2110 of system 110.1(step 2140), and otherwise the proof 1810 is discarded (step 2150).

The caching is not limited to the cases when the validity proofs arepushed to the certificate owners. Validity proofs 1810 may be identicalto proofs 830 of FIG. 8 or 15, or may have other forms. The caching maybe done by non-router systems 110.1 which may get requests 150 fromother systems 110. For example, if a system 110.2 has failed to get avalidity proof from the CA or a directory 210 (due to a network failureor for some other reason), or if the system 110.2 has obtained avalidity proof but the validity proof has failed (e.g. a computed targetdid not match the certificate's target), then the system 110.2 may issuea broadcast request to a local network, and receive a validity proof1810 from another system 110.1 which has cached the proof.

In some embodiments, the caching scheme of FIG. 21 is used in systems inwhich the validity proofs are pushed to the certificate owners and somecertificate owner (e.g. 110.2) enters the network after the distributionof validation status information 1810 for a certain period pi. Thecertificate owner 110.2 then requests its validity proof 1810 from CA120 via a request 150 (FIG. 1). If an intermediate node 110.1 maintainsa validation status information cache 2110, the intermediate nodesearches the cache for validation status information for the requestedcertificate. If the search is successful, the respective validationstatus information is transmitted to the requestor. Otherwise therequest is forwarded to CA 120.

Dynamic Introduction of New Certificates

It is desirable to allow addition of new certificates after the setupstage (e.g. the stage illustrated in FIG. 9 or 16). Hash chains (1) andhash trees 1210 (FIGS. 12-14) each accommodate a predefined number ofperiods pi. In some embodiments, a certificate revocation system isprovided which allows addition of new certificates at any time after thesetup, with additional pi periods. Let M be a maximum number ofcertificates in the setup phase, and suppose each certificate is to beissued for some number Tv of periods pi (Tv is the maximum validityperiod D2-D1, expressed as the number of the pi periods). The periods piare marked on the Time axis 2210 of FIG. 22. In the setup phase, CA 120creates M certificate slots even though the actual number ofcertificates may be less than M. Some slots are assigned to the actualcertificates, and the remaining slots are empty. FIG. 23A shows how someof the setup steps of FIGS. 9, 16 are adapted for dynamic introductionof the new certificates. The remaining steps are not shown and can be asin FIG. 9 or 16. At step 914, CA 120 creates a complement cover CC(U)for the M certificate slots (if the complement covers are used; theinvention is not limited to use of complement covers). At step 918, CA120 generates a hash chain (1) or a hash tree 1210 for some number Td ofperiods pi for each set F in the cover CC(U). Td>Tv. In the example ofFIG. 22, Td=2*Tv. The remaining setup steps 922, 930 can also beperformed. Alternatively, the invention can be practiced without thehash trees 710.

If hash chains (1) are used, the target c₀=f^(Td)(x) where x is theseed. The validity proof provided to verifiers 110 includes a tokenc_(i) and the number j of times that the function f is to be applied tothe i-token c_(i)(F). The verifier checks that f^(j)(c_(i))=c₀.

The periods 1 though Tv will be called a “Tv window” herein. If acertificate is created in this window, it will expire on or before Td,and hence can be used with the data structures (hash chains (1) or hashtrees 1210) created by CA 120 at step 918. More generally, a Tv windowis a window in which a new certificate can be accommodated by theexisting data structures for a predefined time interval of a number ofthe pi periods, i.e. the certificate will not last beyond the last piperiod provided for by the data structures. In the embodiment of FIG.22, the first Tv window is a window from pi=1 to pi=Td-Tv. In FIG. 22,the certificate expiration times D2 are shown with crosses.

A “Td window” starts at the same time as a corresponding Tv window andends Td periods later, denoting the outside bounds of the maximumvalidity period of each new certificate created in the Tv window.

FIG. 23B shows operation of CA 120 after the setup stage. If a newcertificate is requested, at step 2330, in the current Tv window, and anempty certificate slot exists (step 2340), then CA 120 assigns the newcertificate to an empty slot (step 2350). The new certificate is validfor Tv periods pi beginning with the current pi, and may expire afterthe current Tv window. If there are no empty slots, CA 120 performs thesetup again (step 2360). In particular, a new complement cover CC(U) iscreated for M new certificate slots, and the hash chain (1) or hash tree1210 is created for each new set F of the new complement cover for a newTv window of Td periods pi starting with the current (or the next)period pi. The new Tv window becomes the current Tv window. Theremaining setup steps (e.g. creation of trees 710) can also beperformed. Control returns to step 2330. Since the empty slot exists atstep 2340 (M new slots have just been created), the new certificate isassigned to one of the new slots. Control returns to step 2330.

If CA 120 has not run out of empty slots until the end of the current Tvwindow, step 2360 is performed at the end of the window.

CA 120 and directories 210 provide the validity proofs both for thecurrent Td window and for all the previous Td windows which have not yetexpired. When a Td window expires, the corresponding data structures canbe re-used. The data structures associated with an expired certificate(e.g. the hash chains (1) or the hash trees 1210) can be re-used evenbefore the corresponding Td window expires.

FIG. 24 illustrates an embodiment in which different certificates 104may have different maximum validity periods D2-D1 (FIG. 1). Maximumvalidity periods are shown as Tv1, Tv2 for certificates created atrespective times t1, t2. In this embodiment, it is required for themaximum validity period to be at least as long as a predefined numberTvmin. FIG. 25 shows how the setup step 918 is modified for thisembodiment. At step 918, CA 120 creates the hash chains (1) or hashtrees 1210 for a fixed number Td>Tvmin of periods pi for M certificateslots. Therefore, the certificates can be added to the setup datastructures until the time (Td-Tvmin), which marks the end of the firstTv window. A certificate added in any period pi to the hash chain orhash tree data structures can be accommodated by the data structures forup to (Td-pi) of the pi periods. In some embodiments, the certificate'smaximum validity time is set to (Td-pi), e.g. by setting D2 to(D1+Td-pi). In other embodiments, the maximum validity time is notallowed to exceed some predefined number Tvmax>Tvmin of the pi periods.In some embodiments, Td>Tvmax. The CA operation after the setup stage isas in FIG. 23.

The invention is not limited to hash trees 1210 or hash chains.

Distributed Certificate Authority

A single CA 120 can be vulnerable to denial of service attacks and canbe unavailable in the case of network errors. In some embodiments, aDistributed Certificate Authority (distCA) described below minimizesthose drawbacks while maintaining the security of the overall system.

A distCA includes a CA 120 (FIG. 26) and some number “S” of Sub-CAs 2610(i.e. 2610.1, . . . 2610.S). In the setup phase, Sub-CAs 2610 receivesecret data from CA 120, but the data are encrypted. The datacorresponding to different periods pi can be encrypted such that thedecryption requires different keys. CA 120 distributes the requireddecryption keys for each period pi at the beginning, or shortly before,the period pi. In some embodiments, the distributed CA has the followingadvantages:

-   1. The verifier 110 can get a validity or invalidity proof for a    certificate from any Sub-CA 2610. Therefore, in the case of network    failures, chances are higher to obtain the proof of validity or    invalidity.-   2. Less vulnerability to successful denial-of-service attacks in    each period pi because, as described below, less data need to be    exchanged with CA 120 in each period pi (the decryption key    distributed to Sub-CAs 2610 can be smaller than all of the period    data such as i-tokens).-   3. Compromising one of Sub-CAs 2610 does not compromise the whole    system.-   4. A compromised Sub-CA 2610 can be reactivated after it is back in    control of CA 120.-   5. The additional computational work performed by the verifier to    validate a certificate is small compared to a digital signature    computation.

Some embodiments do not provide all of the advantages described above.Some embodiments provide additional advantages, as described below.

FIG. 27 illustrates the CA set up phase. At step 2710, CA 120establishes the validation periods p1, p2, . . . pt for some t. At step2714, CA 120 generates data structures for verifying the Sub-CA validityin each period pi. The same kind of structures can be used as for thecertificate validation. See e.g. FIGS. 1-17. In the example of FIGS.26-27, hash trees 2614.1, . . . 2614.S are created for the respectiveSub-CAs 2610.1, . . . 2610.S. Each tree 2614 can be of the same form asa tree 1210 in any one of FIGS. 12-14, with grey vertices gv(1), . . .gv(t) for the respective periods p1, . . . pt. In FIG. 26, trees 2614are grounded dense hash trees (“GDH”, as in FIG. 14), but other kinds oftrees, or simply hash chains (1), can also be used. The leaf values aregenerated randomly separately for each tree 2614. Let W_(j) denote theroot value of tree 2614.j. We will refer to the W_(j) values asvalidation targets. A hash tree 2618 (which can be of the same form as atree 710 of FIG. 7A or FIG. 11) is defined whose leaf values arevalidation targets W_(j)'s. Let R_(sub) denote the root value of tree2618. R_(sub) is inserted into each certificate 104.

This embodiment does not use revocation targets N₁ for the Sub-CAs. Lackof a validity proof is taken as proof that the Sub-CA is invalid. Otherembodiments use explicit revocation proofs for the Sub-CAs. As mentionedabove, in some embodiments an invalid Sub-CA can be re-activated in asubsequent period pi. Therefore, in some embodiments, the revocationproof is constructed using a technique suitable for validity proofs. Forexample, trees like 2614, 2618 can be used to prove a Sub-CA invalidityin each period pi.

At step 2718, CA 120 creates data structures for certificate validationand revocation. Any of the certificate validation and revocationtechniques can be used, including the techniques described above withrespect to FIGS. 1-25 and other techniques, known or to be invented. Inthe example of FIG. 26, a separate data structure 2622.j is created foreach certificate for the respective Sub-CA 2610.j (so that if one Sub-CAis compromised, the remaining Sub-CAs' data structures 2622 remainsecure). For example, each structure 2622.j can include a tree 1210 forthe periods pi for the certificate (when complement covers are notused), or a combination of (a) the trees 1210 for the complement coversets F containing the certificate with (b) a hash tree 710 over thetargets of the trees 1210. See FIGS. 7A-17. For each structure 2622.j,the corresponding trees 1210 have different, randomly generated leafvalues, so different structures 2622.j are not recoverable from oneanother. In FIG. 26, each structure 2622.j has its own validation targetY_(j)(Y_(j) can be the root value of the corresponding tree 710 or 1210,or can be a hash chain target), a revocation seed N_(0j), and arevocation target N_(1j)=f(N_(0j)). CA 120 defines a hash tree 2626(e.g. like in FIG. 7A or 11) over the root values Y_(j). Let R_(c)denote the root value of tree 2626. R_(c) is inserted into thecertificate.

CA 120 also defines a hash tree 2630 (e.g. like in FIG. 7A or 11) overthe revocation targets N_(1j). Let N_(C) denote the root value of tree2630. N_(C) is inserted into the certificate. The certificate is signedby CA 120 as shown at 104-Sig_(CA).

The certificate validation structures may also include structures commonfor the Sub-CAs, e.g. structures defining a complement cover CC(U) ifthe same complement cover is used for all the Sub-CAs.

In some embodiments, a separate structure 2622.j is created for each setF of a complement cover rather than each certificate. This could bedone, for example, for the systems of FIGS. 4-6 (no hash trees 710).Also, each structure 2622.j may include multiple validation and/orrevocation targets. A separate hash tree 2626 can be created for a setof targets which includes one target from each structure 2622.j. Forexample, if the certificates include the targets c₀(F), then a separatehash tree 2626 can be created over all the targets c₀(F) for a given setF for all the Sub-CAs. Alternatively, a single tree 2626 can be createdfor all of the targets. Some embodiments have no targets, and there isno tree 2626. Many validation structure types can be used.

At step 2722, CA 120 generates encryption and decryption keys 2640.j foreach Sub-CA 2610.j. In this embodiment, for each Sub-CA 2610.j, onedecryption key is used for a number of consecutive periods pi. Forexample, suppose there are 365 periods pi subdivided into P=25 logicalpartitions. 365/25=14 10/25, so we can place the periods p1 through p15into Partition 1, periods p16 through p30 into Partition 2, and so on.The last Partition 25 has periods p361 through p365. The invention isnot limited to the partitions having any particular number of periods.For each Sub-CA 2610.j and each partition k, CA 120 generates adecryption key DKj.k. The encryption scheme may be symmetric (i.e. theencryption keys may be the same as the decryption keys) or asymmetric.

At step 2726, CA 120 uses the data 2622, 2626 to create certificatevalidation data 2650.j for each Sub-CA 2610.j. CA 120 encrypts the data2650.j and sends it to the respective Sub-CAs 2610.j. For each j, data2650.j includes a data structure 2660 for each period pi. In someembodiments, the data 2660 are the same as the data 830V (FIGS. 8, 15)for the validity proofs 830. In one example which uses a tree 1210 foreach certificate 104 and does not use complement covers, data 2660consists of Value(gv(i)) and Value(CoNodes(gv(i)). In some embodiments,the data 2660 for each period pi may be reduced in size by deleting theco-node values and other information present in data 2660 for thepreceding periods pi.

For each Sub-CA 2610.j and each partition k, the data 2660 are encryptedfor decryption with the key DKj.k.

Optionally, for each certificate 104, CA 120 distributes to each Sub-CA2610.j, and/or the certificate owner and/or other parties, data 2662needed to compute the validation target R_(C) from the correspondingtarget Y_(j). Data 2662 may include Value(CoNodes(Leaf(Y_(j)))) whereLeaf(Y_(j)) is the tree 2626 leaf corresponding to Sub-CA 2610.j.Optionally, for each certificate 104, CA 120 distributes to each Sub-CA2610.j, and/or the certificate owner and/or other parties, data 2664needed to compute the revocation target N_(C) from the correspondingtarget N_(1j). Data 2664 may include Value(CoNodes(Leaf(N_(1j)))) whereLeaf(N_(1j)) is the tree 2630 leaf corresponding to Sub-CA 2610.j.Optionally, CA 120 distributes to each Sub-CA 2610.j, and/or eachcertificate owner and/or other parties, data 2668 needed to compute thetarget R_(sub) from the corresponding target W_(j). Data 2664 mayinclude Value(CoNodes(Leaf(W_(j)))) where Leaf(W_(j)) is the tree 2618leaf corresponding to Sub-CA 2610.j. Data 2662, 2664, 2668 need not beencrypted. Optionally, CA 120 can make public all or some of validationtargets W_(j), Y_(j), N_(1j). CA 120 can also provide these targets, foreach j, to the respective Sub-CA 2610.j.

At, or shortly before, the start of each period pi, if pi is the firstperiod in a partition k, CA 120 distributes, for each j, the decryptionkey DKj.k to Sub-CA 2610.j. If a Sub-CA has been compromised and has notreturned under control of CA 120, CA 120 may withhold the decryption keyfrom the CA.

If a Sub-CA 2610.j is compromised, the adversary may have access to allthe data structures 2650.j. However, the data 2660 are encrypted, andthe adversary will hopefully not be able to decrypt the data 2660 forthe future partitions. Therefore, once the Sub-CA 2610.j is back underthe CA's control, CA 120 can reactivate the Sub-CA in the first periodpi of the next partition. Reactivation implies that CA 120 will (a)provide the validity proof 2672 for the Sub-CA and (b) will provide theSub-CA with (b1) the decryption key DKj.k for the current partition k,and (b2) the decryption keys for all the preceding partitions if thekeys were withheld when the Sub-CA was out of the CA's control and ifthe data 2660 for the preceding partitions are needed to constructcertificate validity proofs.

At, or shortly before, each period pi, CA 120 sends to each Sub-CA2610.j, and/or each certificate owner and/or other parties, a validityproof 2672 to prove the Sub-CA validity in the period pi. Validity proof2672 includes Value(gv(i)) and Value(CoNodes(gv(i))) for thecorresponding tree 2614.j. In addition, CA 120 sends to each Sub-CA2610.j the revocation seed values N_(0i) for each certificate 104 whichhas been revoked in the previous period pi (or in any of the previousperiods pi).

At, or shortly before, each period pi which is the first period of apartition, each Sub-CA 2610 which has not been compromised uses thecorresponding decryption key to decrypt the validation data 2660 for thepartition.

In a period pi, a verifier 110 (FIG. 28) receives, from a Sub-CA 2610.jor another party, the Sub-CA's validity proof 2810. The verifier alsoreceives either a certificate validity proof 2820 or a certificaterevocation proof 2830 for the certificate of interest. The validityproof 2810 includes data 2668, 2672 (FIG. 26) for the Sub-CA 2610.j. Theverifier computes the Sub-CA's target W_(j) from the data 2672 (seeListing 1 above), and then the target R_(sub) from the data 2668. If thecomputed value R_(sub) matches the R_(sub) value in the certificate, theSub-CA is assumed to be valid. Otherwise, the verifier may seek theSub-CA validity proof from another source, or simply assume the Sub-CAto be invalid and seek the certificate validity data from anotherSub-CA.

Certificate validity proof 2820 includes a validity proof 830. Thevalidity proof 830 is constructed from decrypted data 2660. The form ofproof 830 depends on the underlying certificate validity scheme, and maybe as in FIG. 8 or 15 for example. Other validity schemes can also beused, including for example the scheme of FIG. 2 and other schemes,known or to be invented. If the verifier receives validity proof 2820,the verifier computes the target Y_(j) from data 830, and then thetarget R_(C) from the data 2662. If the computed value R_(C) matches theR_(C) value in the certificate, the certificate is assumed to be valid.Otherwise, the certificate is either assumed to be invalid or theverifier may seek another proof, for example by contacting anotherSub-CA.

Certificate revocation proof 2830 includes a revocation seed N_(0j) anddata 2664. If the verifier receives revocation proof 2830, the verifiercomputes the revocation target N_(1j)=f(N_(0j)), and then the targetN_(C) from the data 2664. If the computed N_(C) value matches the N_(C)value in the certificate, the certificate is assumed to be revoked.Otherwise, the verifier may still assume the certificate to be revoked,or seek another proof, for example by contacting another Sub-CA.

In each case when a target is to be computed from the co-node values(e.g. when the target W_(j) needs to be computed), if the verifier hasalready verified the same certificate for a previous period pj and hascached the co-node values, and the grey vertices for the period pj andthe current period pi are in a common sub-tree whose root value has beencached as the value of one of the co-nodes, then the verifier needs onlyto compute the root value for the sub-tree and compare it to the cachedvalue rather than computing the root value for the tree. For example, ifa sub-tree root value has been cached for a tree 2614.j, the verifierdoes not need to compute W_(j) or R_(sub) (provided that the verifierhas all the pertinent information on the tree structure and not just alisting of type (5)).

Some embodiments use directories 210 (FIG. 15). Sub-CAs 2610 formvalidity proofs 810, revocation proofs 820, and possibly Sub-CA validityproofs 2810 and distribute them each period pi to directories 210. Thedirectories construct proofs 2820, 2830 and send them to the verifiers.In some embodiments, a directory 210 receives data from only one or twoSub-CAs since the verifier will need the validity proof from only onevalid Sub-CA. Other proof distribution schemes are also possible. Inparticular, some or all of data 2810, 2820, 2830 can be provided by CA120, by the certificate owner, or by another party, e.g. another system110 in an ad hoc network if that other system 110 has cached some or allof data 2810, 2820, 2830.

In some embodiments, each partition consists of one period pi. DifferentSub-CAs 2610 have different decryption keys DK.j.i for each period pi.Sub-CA validity verification is then omitted. If a Sub-CA iscompromised, CA 120 revokes the Sub-CA by stopping to send thedecryption keys to the Sub-CA. When the Sub-CA is back in control of theCA, the CA can reactivate the Sub-CA by sending to it the retaineddecryption keys. Hence, the data 2614, 2618, 2668 can be omitted.

The invention is not limited to the embodiments described above. Theinvention is not limited to any particular hash functions, or tocryptographic functions (which are easy to compute but are one-way orcollision resistant). In some embodiments, it is desirable that afunction f or H be collision resistant not in the sense that it isdifficult to find different x and y with the same image but in the sensethat if x and y are uniformly drawn from the function's domain, theprobability is small that they both will have the same image:P{H(x)=H(y)}≦αwhere α is a small constant (e.g. 1/10, or 1/100, or 2⁻²⁵, or 2⁻⁵⁰, or2⁻⁸⁰, or 2⁻¹⁶⁰, or some other value). Some or all of the techniques usedfor validity proofs can also be used for invalidity proofs and viceversa. The CA, the Sub-CAs, the directories and the systems 110 mayinclude software-programmable or hardwired computer systemsinterconnected via a network or networks. Each function f or Hrepresents an evaluation method performed by a computer system. Theinvention is not limited to the step sequences shown in the flowcharts,as the step order is sometimes interchangeable and further differentsteps may be performed in parallel. Other embodiments and variations arewithin the scope of the invention, as defined by the appended claims.

All of the following references are incorporated herein by reference.

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1. A method for generating computer-readable computer data for aplurality of slots of digital certificates, the computer data being forgenerating validity or invalidity proofs for the digital certificates,wherein each slot is associated with at most one digital certificate,and each digital certificate is associated with a respective one of theslots; wherein each digital certificate certifies that a cryptographickey is associated with an entity, and each digital certificate isassociated with an expiration time indicating when the certificateexpires, each digital certificate comprising revocation data forenabling revocation of the digital certificate before the certificate'sexpiration time; the method comprising: generating, in a data carrier:one or more digital certificates, wherein the number of slots is greaterthan the number of the one or more digital certificates; and firstcomputer data for generating proofs of validity or invalidity for anydigital certificate associated with a slot; wherein the computer datacomprises the one or more digital certificates and the first computerdata; wherein a plurality of sets F is defined, each set F being a setof one or more of the slots, each slot belonging to at least one set F;wherein each proof is digital data associated with a set F and withtime, and is for proving validity or invalidity, at the associated time,for each digital certificate associated with a slot in the set F,wherein the proof depends on secret data associated with the set F;wherein said generating of the one or more digital certificates and thefirst computer data comprises: generating, for at least each set Fcomprising at least one slot associated with a digital certificate, thesecret data associated with the set F, the first computer datacomprising the secret data; for at least each slot associated with adigital certificate, generating the digital certificate's revocationdata from the secret data; wherein for each digital certificate, thecertificate's validity or invalidity status for a given time isverifiable, even before the certificate's expiration time, by averification method comprising: obtaining the proof associated with thegiven time and with a set F comprising a slot associated with thedigital certificate; and performing a predefined verification operationon the proof and the digital certificate's revocation data; wherein thetime associated with at least one proof is operable to extend beyond theexpiration time of each of the one or more digital certificates, topermit subsequent creation of one or more additional digitalcertificates and association of each additional digital certificate withan empty slot (a slot not previously associated with any digitalcertificate), and to permit at least one additional digital certificateto be associated with an expiration time which is later than theexpiration time of each of said one or more digital certificates.
 2. Themethod of claim 1 further comprising creating an additional certificatehaving an expiration time which is later than the expiration time ofeach of said one or more digital certificates, and associating theadditional certificate with an empty slot.
 3. A computer system adaptedto perform the method of claim
 2. 4. A non-transitory data carriercomprising one or more computer instructions operable to cause acomputer system to perform the method of claim
 2. 5. The method of claim1 wherein said generating of the one or more digital certificates andthe first computer data comprises generating, for each set F, the secretdata associated with the set F.
 6. A non-transitory data carriercomprising one or more computer instructions operable to cause acomputer system to perform the method of claim
 5. 7. The method of claim1 wherein at least one of the one or more certificates is associatedwith a slot belonging to multiple sets F, and the revocation data forsaid at least one of the one or more certificates depends on the secretdata associated with each of said multiple sets F.
 8. A computer systemadapted to perform the method of claim
 7. 9. A non-transitory datacarrier comprising one or more computer instructions operable to cause acomputer system to perform the method of claim
 7. 10. The method ofclaim 1 wherein the revocation data associated with each digitalcertificate depends on the secret data associated with each set Fcontaining a slot associated with the digital certificate; wherein atleast one set F has more than one slots.
 11. The method of claim 10wherein the sets F form a complement cover for a set of all the slots.12. A computer system adapted to perform the method of claim
 10. 13. Anon-transitory data carrier comprising one or more computer instructionsoperable to cause a computer system to perform the method of claim 10.14. The method of claim 1 wherein at least two different sets F haverespective different numbers of slots, and each proof has a bit lengthindependent of the number of the slots in the set F with which the proofis associated.
 15. The method of claim 1 wherein the secret dataassociated with each set F is randomly generated separately from thesecret data associated with every other set F.
 16. A computer systemadapted to perform the method of claim
 1. 17. A non-transitory datacarrier comprising one or more computer instructions operable to cause acomputer system to perform the method of claim 1.